Pursuing a vision: Successive reforms have brought the sultanate into the 21st century

With its lengthy coastline running along the edge of a sometimes mountainous and often desert interior, Oman is a country of many different aspects. It is both an ancient maritime power and a key desert sultanate, a place both open to the modern world and that preserves a strong sense of tradition and culture. Indeed, while many countries are moulded by their geography, for Oman this is especially true.

Besides being a relatively diverse country, Oman is also comparatively large. Indeed, after Saudi Arabia, the sultanate is the second-largest country on the Arabian Peninsula, with a land area of 309,500 sq km.

BORDERS: In addition to the main part of its territory on the Arabian Sea, Oman also includes the tip of the Musandam Peninsula which extends into the Strait of Hormuz and is separated from the rest of the country by the UAE. Meanwhile, the Omani territory of Madha, administered by the Musandam Governorate, is an exclave located within the UAE, halfway between the Musandam Peninsula and the rest of Oman. Additionally, within Madha there is another exclave, called Nahwa, this time belonging to the UAE and legally under the administration of the emirate of Sharjah.

Oman’s borders are therefore numerous and widespread. The Strait of Hormuz is to the north, and the Gulf of Oman is to the north-east. The Arabian Sea lies to the east and south, Yemen to the south-west. Saudi Arabia and the Empty Quarter (Rub Al Khali) lie to the west, with the UAE to the north-west. Indeed, the country’s total estimated boundary length is 3466 km, of which 2092 km is coastline.

Maintaining so many national boundaries has led the rulers of Oman to learn the importance of negotiation with the countries adjacent to their territories, as border disputes have sometimes occurred in the past. These days though, Oman’s borders are established and well-defined, and the country enjoys peaceful relations with its neighbours.

A VARIED CLIMATE: The sultanate is generally hot and dry in the desert interior and hot and humid along the coast. However, in the southern Dhofar region, a strong south-west summer monsoon brings rains and wind from May to September.

Snow sometimes falls in the high mountains of the sultanate during the winter months, while annual rainfall in the capital, Muscat, averages around 10 cm, occurring mostly in January.

The weather can, however, deliver some surprises.

In June 2007, a Category 4 storm, Cyclone Gonu, struck the Gulf. The cyclone’s winds, which exceeded 210 km/h at one point, were the strongest ever recorded to hit the Arabian Peninsula. By the time the cyclone reached the coast of Oman, it had subsided to a Category 1 storm with winds of 150 km/h, but it still left approximately 50 people dead, buildings damaged, roads flooded and power outages in Muscat and other coastal cities. The cyclone thus led to a major rethinking of storm protection in the sultanate.

A GROWING COUNTRY: The 2010 census enumerated a total population of 2.77m, with expatriates in the country numbering 816,143. With a median age of 24 years, this populace is relatively young, and providing adequate employment for young nationals has frequently been an issue in the sultanate.

In an effort to provide Omanis with more employment opportunities, a programme of “Omanisation” has been in operation since 1988. This initiative has seen Omanis taking over jobs from expatriate workers, with targets for a percentage of Omanis set for each part of the public and private sectors.

Omanis speak Arabic as their primary language, though coastal dialects use numerous words borrowed from Persian, Baluchi, Urdu, Gujarati and Portuguese. The people who live in the mountainous regions of Dhofar and some nomadic groups also speak a variety of unique South Arabian languages.

English is in wide use as a second language.

A RICH HISTORY: Historians suspect that in antiquity, Oman may have been the land of Magan, a copper- and diorite-rich region discussed in Sumerian cuneiform texts from approximately 2300 BCE. These texts speak of a mountainous place south of Sumer and Dilmun that supplied Mesopotamia with metal and stone. Indeed, archaeologists have in recent times located significant copper deposits and more than 150 medieval Islamic smelting sites in the sultanate, in addition to numerous Magan-period slag heaps at Maysar in central-eastern Oman. What is more certain is that 8000 years ago, Levantine nomads settled the Arabian Peninsula, reaching as far as Dhofar.

The territory now known as Oman was then subject to competition between the Persian Empire and various powers in what is now Yemen from the sixth century BCE until the arrival of Islam in the seventh century CE. Then, power over Oman and Muscat was transferred to the Caliphate. It was also during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad that the people of Oman adopted Islam as the predominant religion.

RELIGION: By the middle of the eighth century CE, most Omanis were practising the Ibadi school of Islam, a grouping within the broader Islamic faith that is now common only in Oman and some areas in North and East Africa. Distinct from the Sunni and Shia sects of Islam, Ibadhism is now practised by about 75% of Omanis and is considered to be a moderate, tolerant and conservative form of the faith. The remaining 25% of Omanis typically practice Sunni and Shia Islam, although the country is tolerant of minority religions.

In 751, the region began electing imams to rule as spiritual leaders, thereby creating an elective theocracy. This tradition lasted until 1154, when the Nabhanite dynasty of hereditary kings was established.

EARLY RELATIONS: In 1498, the Portuguese – looking for outposts to protect their sea lanes – began an occupation of Muscat that would last for 160 years. During this time, the Portuguese became the strongest sea power from the Gulf of Oman to the southern tip of Africa. While under Portuguese control, Muscat was fortified with forts and ramparts. This colonial architectural style is still evident in Muscat, which has now become the modern-day capital of Oman.

In the mid-17th century, the Persians arrived to successfully dislodge the Portuguese from Muscat. Less than a century later, in 1741, they were themselves forced out by a Yemeni tribal leader, Imam Ahmad bin Said, who went on to found the royal Al Busaidi line. The current sultan, Qaboos bin Said, is the eighth direct descendant of Imam Ahmad bin Said.

With its extensive coastline, it is perhaps no surprise that coastal Omanis have been a seagoing people for centuries. Trade with Persia, India and Africa was commonplace for thousands of years, and eventually brought Oman an empire that stretched all the way to Zanzibar. Taking advantage of its seafaring expertise and location on the Indian Ocean, Oman became a regional maritime power in the early 1800s, gradually extending its reach to the coasts of present-day Iran, Pakistan, Zanzibar and Kenya, and trading as far away as the Malay Peninsula.

As the 19th century wore on though, this empire began to decline as technically-advanced European competitors increasingly encroached upon Oman’s trading network. Although British traders contributed to this decline, the UK and Oman have historically pursued a close relationship, with treaties of friendship being signed in 1798, 1800, 1891 and most recently in 1951. In subsequent years, the UK has offered military support to help preserve security and stability within the sultanate. The two countries continue to maintain a strong relationship to this day.

Even in modern times, the residual effects of Oman’s historic maritime empire continue to be visible. Some Omanis are able to speak Swahili, and a good percentage of the country’s residents hail from the Indian subcontinent and from Baluchistan in particular. Indeed, Oman continued to rule over the exclave of Gwadar until 1958 when it officially became part of Pakistan.

TRADITION: The dhow, an ancient ship, is an enduring symbol of Oman’s close relationship with the sea and its extensive knowledge of seamanship. Evidence exists of an Omani dhow reaching China in the eighth century, and they can still be seen today along Oman’s coastline as vehicles for trade, fishing and tourism.

In the desert interior, meanwhile, life takes on a more tribal and traditionally rural bent, with many families tending livestock and growing crops.

This cultural and geographical split historically had important consequences, with the interior peoples choosing to be ruled by imams and the coastal peoples ruled by sultans. Sultan Qaboos unified these two areas when he ascended to power.

In addition to the historical interior-coastal divide, the whole of northern Oman is separated from the southern region of Dhofar by hundreds of miles of desert. This additional geographic detail results in its own quirks, as many Dhofaris maintain cultural and historical ties with neighbouring Yemen.

Most Omani men wear the traditional clothing of their ancestors, the dishdasha, a collarless, tasselled ankle-long white robe. Traditionally, the tassel was scented with a drop of one of Oman’s famous perfumes. During holidays, men wear ceremonial dress including the elaborately carved Omani khanjar knife, with its curved dagger. Most Omani women wear hijab and abaya, and while some women cover their faces and hands, most do not. On holidays, Omani women dress in brightly coloured traditional clothing consisting of a long tunic over trousers.

MONARCHICAL GOVERNMENT: Oman is a hereditary absolute monarchy. His Majesty Sultan Qaboos is both the head of state and of government. He acts as prime minister, foreign minister, finance minister and minister of defence. The current sultan took over the reins of government when his father, Sultan Said bin Taymur, abdicated in 1970.

At the time, Oman was an isolated, undeveloped state, lacking in basic facilities and infrastructure. Sultan Qaboos set about making changes that would transform Oman into the modern state it is today. One of his first acts was to change the name of the country from Muscat and Oman to the Sultanate of Oman, indicating that his would be a united country. The sultan also proceeded to appoint a cabinet of ministers responsible for various government departments and functions – a first for the country.

Just 25 years later, Oman was no longer among the ranks of under-developed nations that required World Bank loans. Sultan Qaboos’s ambitious economic goals, which include plans for easing the sultanate’s dependence on petroleum resources by diversifying its economic base, have seen an opening to tourism and major improvements in the country’s infrastructure. The sultan’s long-term development strategy is called Oman Vision 2020, and this emphasises industrialisation, privatisation and Omanisation.

In 1996, the sultan decreed the Basic Law of the State, which is considered to be Oman’s constitution. The law established a bicameral legislature, clarified the royal succession, provided for a prime minister and proscribed ministers from holding interests in companies doing business with the government. It also guaranteed basic civil liberties, such as freedom of religion and speech, a free press and a number of legal rights, such as the right to a fair trial.

The Council of Oman (Majlis Oman) is a bicameral consultative council. With advisory powers only, the upper chamber of the council is called the Majlis Al Dawla, or the State Council, whose members are appointed by the sultan. Members of the lower chamber, the Majlis Al Shura, are elected by popular vote for four-year terms. The Majlis Al Shura is authorised to draft legislation sanctioned by the sultan.

Since 2002, citizens over 21 years of age have been eligible to vote. The most recent elections for the Majlis Al Shura were held on October 15, 2011, and the next elections are set for October 2015.

The nation is divided into eleven governorates ( Muscat, Musandam, Al Buraimi, Al Dakhiliyah, Al Batinah North, Al Batinah South, Al Sharqiyah North, Al Sharqiyah South, Al Dhahirah, Al Wusta and Dhofar). The governorates are then further subdivided into a total of 59 provinces, or wilayats. Each wilayat is presided over by a wali, who is responsible for collecting taxes and maintaining peace in their areas.

THE ROYAL TOUR: A unique feature of Omani political and social life is the sultan’s periodic, weeks-long tours of the wilayats. An institution since Sultan Qaboos assumed power, these tours allow the sultan to meet with Omanis who may otherwise have difficulty attracting official attention. During these tours, the sultan meets local citizens, sheikhs and dignitaries at either Royal Camp sites or spontaneously along the road.

These royal tours play an important role in the functioning of the country’s political system, providing a personal channel of communication between the sultan and the people. This tradition provides normal citizens with the opportunity to speak directly to the ruler and express their opinions. During the tours, decisions may be taken and directives issued on concerns that have been raised during the consultations. For instance, it has been due to these tours that several road, water, electricity and other service and infrastructure projects have been established.

REGIONAL INFLUENCE: The country’s recent foreign policy has been largely influenced by the sultan’s determination to bring the country out of its isolationism and to integrate Oman regionally and internationally. Since 1970, Oman has been transformed into a non-aligned regional power with a non-confrontational and pragmatic approach to foreign relations. The country maintains close ties with distant countries such as the UK and the US, with the latter signing a free trade agreement in 2006.

Oman is a founding member of the GCC, which also includes Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, the UAE and Bahrain. However, like Bahrain, Oman remains outside the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries.

Relations between Oman and its neighbours have been enhanced since Sultan Qaboos came to power. Long-standing irritants have been resolved, including the end of border disputes with the UAE and Saudi Arabia, and the normalisation of relations with Yemen.